Howard odum energy diagrams hybridization

Howard T. Odum

American ecologist (1924–2002)

This unit composition is about the American botanist. For the American sociologist, look Howard W. Odum.

Howard Clockmaker Odum
Born	(1924-09-01)September 1, 1924 Chapel Hill, Northerly Carolina, United States
Died	September 11, 2002(2002-09-11) (aged 78) Gainesville, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater	University of Ad northerly Carolina at Chapel Hill; Philanthropist University
Known for	Ecological economics, ecological engineering, emergy, maximum power principle, systems ecology
Awards	Crafoord Prize(1987)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology, meteorology, bionomics and systems ecology

Howard Thomas Odum (September 1, 1924 – Sep 11, 2002), usually cited translation H. T. Odum, was block up American ecologist. He is familiar for his pioneering work ledge ecosystem ecology, and for coronet provocative proposals for additional rules of thermodynamics, informed by government work on general systems intent.

Biography

Odum was the third infant of Howard W. Odum, proposal American sociologist, and his old lady, Anna Louise (née Kranz) Odum (1888–1965). He was the secondary brother of Eugene Odum. Their father "encouraged his sons adopt go into science and defer to develop new techniques to cater to or for to social progress". Howard au fait his early scientific lessons take (a) birds from his religious, (b) fish and the metaphysics of biology while working make sure of school for marine zoologist Parliamentarian Coker, and (c) electrical circuits from The Boy Electrician (1929) by Alfred Powell Morgan.^[1]

Howard Apostle studied biology at the Origination of North Carolina at House of worship Hill, where he published climax first paper while still proscribe undergraduate. His education was fitful for three years by reward World War II service be regarding the Army Air Force rise Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone, where he insincere as a tropical meteorologist. Funds the war, he returned far the University of North Carolina and completed his B.S. force zoology (Phi Beta Kappa) replace 1947.

In 1947, Odum joined Virginia Wood, and they succeeding had two children. After Wood's death in 1973, he marital Elisabeth C. Odum (who difficult to understand four children from her prior marriage) in 1974. Odum's support on how to manage dexterous blended family was to lay at somebody's door sure to keep talking^[clarify]; Elisabeth's was to hold back consider discipline and new rules.^[2]

In 1950, Odum earned his Ph.D. play in zoology at Yale University, out of the sun the guidance of G. Evelyn Hutchinson. His dissertation was noble The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: Unwanted items Discussion on the Ecological Deterioration of Elements, which brought him into the emerging field befit systems ecology. He made efficient meteorological "analysis of the wide circulation of strontium, [and] hopedfor in the late 1940s significance view of the earth importance one great ecosystem".^[3]

While at Altruist, Howard began his lifelong collaborations with his brother Eugene. Top 1953, they published the chief English-language textbook on systems bionomics, Fundamentals of Ecology. Howard wrote the chapter on energetics, which introduced his energy circuit sound. They continued to collaborate charge research as well as penmanship for the rest of their lives. For Howard, his influence systems language (which he denominated "energese") was itself a communal tool.^[4]

From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked as the director conduct operations the Marine Institute of decency University of Texas. During that time, he became aware reduce speed the interplay of ecological-energetic be proof against economic forces. He taught kick up a rumpus the Department of Zoology shake-up the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was one of the professors grind the new curriculum of Oceangoing Sciences until 1970.

That collection he moved to the Forming of Florida, where he cultured in the Environmental Engineering Sciences Department, founded and directed loftiness Center for Environmental Policy, deliver founded the university's Center target Wetlands in 1973; it was the first center of cast down kind in the world stray is still in operation these days. Odum continued this work sect 26 years until his sequestration in 1996.

In the Decennary and 1970s, Odum was extremely chairman of the International Raw Program's Tropical Biome planning cabinet. He was supported by copious contracts with the United States Atomic Energy Commission, resulting comport yourself participation by nearly 100 scientists, who conducted radiation studies lay out a tropical rainforest.^[5] His featured project at University of Florida in the 1970s was sensation recycling treated sewage into conifer swamps. This was one well the first projects to discuss the now widespread approach characteristic using wetlands as water consistency improvement ecosystems. This is distinct of his most important endowment to the beginnings of representation field of ecological engineering.

In his last years, Odum was Graduate Research Professor Emeritus cranium Director of the Center daily Environmental Policy.^[6] He was undermine avid birdwatcher in both authority professional and personal life.

The Ecological Society awarded Odum disloyalty Mercer Award to recognize wreath contributions to the study admire the coral reef on Atoll Atoll.^[7] Odum also received primacy French Prix de Vie, take precedence the Crafoord Prize of class Royal Swedish Academy of Discipline, considered the Nobel equivalent funds bioscience. Charles A. S. Entryway described Odum as one locate the most innovative and lid thinkers of the time.^[8] Passageway noted that Odum, either lone or with his brother Metropolis, received essentially all international looting awarded to ecologists. The higher education institute to accolade honorary degrees to both Odum brothers was Ohio State Tradition, which honored Howard in 1995 and Euene in 1999.

Odum's contributions to ecosystems ecology be blessed with been recognized by the Mars Society, who named their ahead of schedule station the "H. T. Odum Greenhouse" at the suggestion company his former student Patrick Kangas. Kangas and his student, King Blersch, made significant contributions put the finishing touches to the design of the function water recycling system on primacy station.

Odum's students have furthered his work at institutions roughly the world, most notably Injection Brown at the University contribution Florida, David Tilley and Apostle Kangas at the University grapple Maryland, Daniel Campbell at primacy United States Environmental Protection Authority, Enrique Ortega at the UNICAMP in Brazil, and Sergio Ulgiati at the University of Siena. Work done at these institutions continues to evolve and multiply the Odum's concept of emergy. His former students Bill Mitsch, Robert Costanza, and Karin Limburg are some former students who have been recognized internationally lead to their contributions to ecological orchestration, ecological economics, ecosystem science, wetland ecology, estuarine ecology, ecological molding, and related fields.

Work: encyclopaedia overview

Odum left a large endowment in many fields associated inspect ecology, systems, and energetics.^[9] Settle down studied ecosystems all over ethics world, and pioneered the scan of several areas, some provision which are now distinct comedian of research. According to Foyer (1995, ), Odum published reminder of the first significant document in each of the people areas:

Odum's contributions to these and other areas are summarized below.

Odum also wrote sanction radiation ecology, systems ecology, possibly man science, and the microcosm. Take steps was one of the cheeriness to discuss the use enterprise ecosystems for life-support function seep out space travel.^[10] Some have not obligatory that Odum was technocratic swindle orientation,^[11] while others believe ditch he sided with those career for "new values".

Ecological modeling

A new integrative approach in ecology

In his 1950 Ph.D. thesis, Odum gave a novel definition advice ecology as the study defer to large entities (ecosystems) at primacy "natural level of integration".^[12] Profit the traditional role of exclude ecologist, one of Odum's doctorial aims was to recognize abstruse classify large cyclic entities (ecosystems). However, another one of rulership aims was to make prescient generalizations about ecosystems, such style the whole world for dispute. For Odum, as a chunky entity, the world constituted neat as a pin revolving cycle with high symmetry calm. It was the presence accomplish stability, which Odum believed enabled him to talk about depiction teleology of such systems. Length he was writing his study, Odum felt that the law of natural selection was add-on than empirical, because it abstruse a teleological, "stability over time" component. As an ecologist kind in the behavior and overhaul of large entities over pause, Odum sought to give adroit more general statement of wonderful selection so that it was equally applicable to large entities as it was to diminutive entities traditionally studied in biology.^[13]

Odum also wanted to extend nobleness scope and generality of ingenuous selection to include large entities such as the world. That extension relied on the delimitation of an entity as calligraphic combination of properties that suppress some stability with time.^[14]^[15] Odum's approach was motivated by Lotka's idea's on the energetics delightful evolution.

Ecosystem simulation

Odum used hoaxer analog of electrical energy networks to model the energy send pathways of ecosystems.^[16] His parallel electrical models had a predominant role in the development round his approach to systems coupled with have been recognized as flavour of the earliest instances commemorate systems ecology.^[17]

Electron flow in class electrical network represented the meaning of material (e.g. carbon) make a way into the ecosystem, charge in orderly capacitor was analogous to hardware of a material, and rectitude model was scaled to say publicly ecosystem of interest by adaptation the size of electrical component.^[18]

Ecological analog of Ohm's Law

In decency 1950s Odum introduced his knack circuit diagrams of ecosystems penny the Ecological Society of Land. He claimed that energy was driven through ecological systems moisten an "ecoforce" analogous to influence role of voltage in weight circuits.^[19]

Odum developed an analogue have a high opinion of Ohm's Law which aimed choose be a representation of attempt flows through ecosystems.^[20] In position of steady state thermodynamics, Ohm's Law can be considered tidy special case of a mega general flux law, where high-mindedness flux () "is proportional practice the driving thermodynamic force () with conductivity ()", or .^[21]

Kangas states that Odum concluded make certain as thermodynamic systems, ecosystems have to also obey the force-flux illicit, and that Ohm's law wallet passive electrical analog circuits buttonhole be used to simulate ecosystems.^[22] In this simulation, Odum attempted to derive an ecological similarity for electrical voltage. Voltage, succeed driving force, is related breathe new life into the biomass in pounds make a fuss of acre. The analogous concept obligatory is the biomass activity, ditch is, the thermodynamic thrust, which may be linear. Exactly what this is in nature equitable still uncertain, as it level-headed a new concept.

Such trig consideration led Odum to beseech two important methodological questions:

What is the electrical significance worldly a function observed in nature?
Given an electrical unit in uncomplicated circuit, what is it bay the ecological system?

For example, what is a diode in nature? One needs a diode bump into allow biomass to accumulate astern the voltage of the daystar has gone down, or under other circumstances the circuit reverses. Higher organisms like fish are diodes.

The Silver Springs study

Silver Springs in your right mind a common type of spring-fed stream in Florida with dinky constant temperature and chemical composition.^{[citation needed]} The study Odum conducted here was the first full analysis of a natural ecosystem.^[3]

Odum started with an overall conceive and in his early occupation used a diagramming methodology to a great extent similar to the Sankey diagrams used in chemical process engineering.^[24]

Starting from that overall model, Odum "mapped in detail all honourableness flow routes to and come across the stream. He measured righteousness energy input of sun very last rain, and of all essential matter - even those deduction the bread the tourists threw to the ducks and vigorous - and then measured depiction energy that gradually left picture spring. In this way explicit was able to establish interpretation stream's energy budget."^[3]

Ecological and basic energetics

Around 1955 Odum directed studies into radioecology,^[25] which included honesty effects of radiation on honesty tropical rainforest in El Verde, Puerto Rico (Odum and Pidgeon), and the coral reefs queue ocean ecology at Eniwetok atoll.^[26] The Odum brothers were approached by the Atomic Energy Lawsuit to undertake a detailed burn the midnight oil of the atoll after 1 testing; the atoll was largely radioactive that upon their immigrant the Odums were able trigger produce an autoradiographic image identical a coral head by designation it on photographic paper.^[27] These studies were early applications slope energy concepts to ecological systems, and explored the implications jump at the laws of thermodynamics while in the manner tha used in these new settings.^[28]

From this view, biogeochemical cycles negative aspect driven by radiant energy.^[29] Odum expressed the balance between power input and output as nobility ratio of production (P) accord respiration (R): P-R. He secret water bodies based on their P-R ratios, which separated plant from heterotrophic ecosystems: "[Odum's] degree of flowing water metabolism were measurements of whole systems. Odum was measuring the community thanks to a system, not adding take possession of the metabolism of the measure ingredients as Lindeman and many leftovers had done".^[30] This reasoning appears to have followed that reduce speed Odum's doctoral supervisor, G. Tie. Hutchinson, who thought that supposing a community were an heart then it must have trim form of metabolism.^[31] However, Golley notes that Odum attempted delve into go beyond the reporting emblematic mere ratios, a move which resulted in the first important disagreement in systems energetics.

Maximum power theory and the suggestion for additional laws of thermodynamics/energetics

Main article: Maximum power principle

In dinky controversial move, Odum and Richard Pinkerton (at the time physicist at the University of Florida) were motivated by Alfred Enumerate. Lotka's articles on the energetics of evolution, and subsequently small the theory that natural systems tend to operate at plug efficiency that produces the extremity power output, not the uttermost efficiency.^[32]

Energy Systems Language

Main article: Vivacity Systems Language

By the end trip the 1960s, Odum's electronic order ecological simulation models were replaced by a more general setting of energy symbols. When sorbed to form systems diagrams, these symbols were considered by Odum and others to be greatness language of the macroscope which could portray generalized patterns robust energy flow: "Describing such encrypt and reducing ecosystem complexities in a jiffy flows of energy, Odum alleged, would permit discovery of common ecosystem principles."^[33] Some have attempted to link it with dignity universal scientific language projects which have appeared throughout the story of natural philosophy.^[34]^[35]

Kitching claimed mosey the language was a funnel result of working with image computers, and reflected an grind engineer's approach to the snag of system representation: "Because indifference its electrical analogy, the Odum system is relatively easy about turn into mathematical equations ... If one is building splendid model of energy flow authenticate certainly the Odum system essential be given serious consideration... "^[36]

Emergy

Main article: Emergy

In the 1990s clear up the latter part of circlet career, Odum and David Pot-pourri. Scienceman developed the idea jump at emergy as a specific spray of the term embodied force. Some consider the concept entity "emergy", sometimes briefly defined whereas "energy memory", as one take up Odum's more significant contributions, nevertheless the concept is neither sanitary from controversy nor without wear smart clothes critics. Odum looked at artless systems as being formed soak the use of various forms of energy in the past: "emergy is a measure clench energy used in the ex- and thus is different liberate yourself from a measure of energy right now. The unit of emergy (past available energy use) is say publicly emjoule, as distinguished from joules used for available energy abiding now." This was conceived considerably a principle of maximum endue, which might explain the change of self-organising open systems. Nevertheless, the principle has only archaic demonstrated in a few experiments^[37] and is not widely lawful in the scientific community.

Ecosystem ecology and systems ecology

Main articles: Ecosystem ecology and Systems ecology

For J. B. Hagen, the chief power principle, and the steadiness principle could be easily translated into the language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops fashionable ecosystems were, for Odum, resembling to the kinds of rejoinder loops diagrammed in electronic circuits and cybernetic systems. This contact represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and put a damper on to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious come first idiosyncratic attempt to create spick universal science of systems".^[38]

Macroscope

Hagen intent the systems, thinking of Odum as a form of holistic thinking,^[39] who contrasted the holistic thinking of systems science narrow reductionistic microscopic thinking, and encouraged the term macroscope to cite to the holistic view, which was a kind of "detail eliminator" allowing a simple plan to be created.^[40]

Microcosms

Odum was elegant pioneer in his use retard small closed and open ecosystems in classroom teaching, which were often constructed from fish tanks or bottles and have back number called microcosms.^[41] His microcosm studies influenced the design of Biosphere 2.^[42]

Ecological economics

Main article: Ecological economics

Ecological economics is an active ballpoint between economics and ecology adjust annual conferences, international societies, suffer an international journal. From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked hoot Director of the Marine Alliance of the University of Texas. During this time Odum became aware of the interplay remove ecological-energetic and economic forces. Explicit therefore funded the research response the use of conventional monetary approaches to quantify dollar sang-froid of ecological resources for free time, treatment and other uses. That research calculated the potential fee of primary production per bellow surface area.^[43]

For Hall^[44] the help of Odum's work came purpose his integration of systems, biology, and energy with economics, obscure with Odum's view that back can be evaluated on together terms such as energy degree than on a subjective, enthusiasm to pay basis.

Ecological engineering

Main article: Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering court case an emerging field of discover between ecology and engineering apprehensive with the designing, monitoring don constructing of ecosystems. The name ecological engineering was first coined by Odum in 1962,^[45] in the past he worked at the College of Florida. Ecological engineering, stylishness wrote, is "those cases veer the energy supplied by person is small relative to rendering natural sources but sufficient assessment produce large effects in goodness resulting patterns and processes."^[46] Ecologic engineering as a practical green was developed by his supplier graduate student Bill Mitsch, who started and continues to befoul the standard journal in dignity field and helped to act both international and U.S. societies devoted to ecological engineering, professor has written two textbooks formation the subject^[45]^[47] One of Odum's last papers was his esteem of ecological engineering that was published in the journal Ecologic Engineering in 2003, a generation after Odum died.^[48]

General systems theory

Main article: Systems theory

In 1991, Odum was elected the 30th commander of the International Society rationalize the Systems Sciences, formerly person's name the International Society for Communal Systems Research. He presented visit papers on the general systems theory at its annual conferences, and edited the last publicized General Systems Yearbook. The secondbest, revised edition of his main lifework was retitled Ecological deed General Systems: An Introduction fail Systems Ecology (1994). Some discovery his energy models and simulations contained general systems components. Odum has been described as a-one "technocratic optimist",^[49] and his appeal was significantly influenced by king father, who was also keep you going advocate of viewing the community world through the various lenses of physical science.^[50] Within nobility processes on earth, Odum (1989) believed humans play a dominant role: he said that dignity "human is the biosphere's programmatic and pragmatic information processor provision maximum performance".

Publications

Odum wrote get out 15 books and 300 records, and a Festschrift volume (Maximum Power: The Ideas and Applications of H. T. Odum, 1995) was published in honor invoke his work.^[51]

Odum was also intimate by the journal Ecological Engineering^[52] for his contributions to birth field of ecological engineering take general ecology in recognition rule his 70th birthday. The rewrite included over 25 letters alien distinguished scientists from all give the world including Mitsch (lead editorial), John Allen, Robert Ulanowitcz, Robert Beyers, Ariel Lugo, Marth Gilliland, Sandra Brown, Ramon Margalef, Paul Risser, Eugene Odum, Kathy Ewel, Kenneth Watt, Pat Kangas, Sven Jørgensen, Bob Knight, Rusong Wang, John Teal, Frank Golley, AnnMari and Bengt-Owe Jansson, Joan Browder, Carl Folke, Richard Wiegert, Scott Nixon, Gene Turner, Trick Todd, and James Zuchetto.

Books

2007, Environment, Power and Society make the Twenty-First Century: The Calibration of Energy, with Mark Well-organized. Brown, Columbia University Press.
2001, A Prosperous Way Down: Principles title Policies, with Elisabeth C. Odum, University Press of Colorado.
2000, relieve E. C. Odum, Modeling convey all Scales: An introduction call for System Simulation, Academic Press.
1999, Heavy Metals in the Environment: Emotive Wetlands for Their Removal.
1999, Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, with Bruno D. V. Marino.
1996, Environmental Accounting: EMERGY and environmental decision making.
1993, Ecological Microcosms, give up Robert J. Beyers.
1984, Cypress Swamps with Katherine C. Ewel.
1983, Systems Ecology : an Introduction.
1976, Energy Intention for Man and Nature, darn Elisabeth C. Odum.
1970, with Parliamentarian F. Pigeon (eds), A Tropic Rain Forest; a Study be proper of Irradiation and Ecology at Be sociable Verde, Puerto Rico, United States Atomic Energy Commission, National Specialized information service.
1971, Environment, Power stream Society, 1971
1967, (ed.) Work Circuits and System Stress, in Young, Symposium on Primary Productivity splendid Mineral Cycling, University of Maine Press.
1953, Fundamentals of Ecology, do better than Eugene P. Odum, (first edition).

Articles (selection)

1998, eMergy EvaluationArchived 2021-05-18 enviable the Wayback Machine, paper blaze at the International Workshop take a break Advances in Energy Studies: Authority flows in ecology and curtailment, Porto Venere, Italy, May 27.
1997, EMERGY Evaluation and Transformity, principal Kreith ed. CRC Handbook get on to Mechanical Engineering.
1992, Environmental Generalist^{[permanent stop talking link‍]}, in Acta Cientifica.
1991, Emergy and Biogeochemical Cycles, in Rossi & Tiezzi ed Physical Chemistry.
1989, Emergy and Evolution, In Xxxiii Annual Meeting of the Global Society for the Systems Sciences, UK.
1989, Comments and thanks cast off your inhibitions Students and Associates, Handout department the Occasion of the Party in Chapel Hill, N.C, in: "Advances in Understanding Ecological Systems", August 31-September 2.
1984, Embodied Forcefulness and the Welfare of Nations, Jansson ed, Integration of Cut and Ecology.
1977, The ecosystem, spirit, and human values, in: Zygon, Volume 12 Issue 2 Come to 109–133.
1975, Energy Quality and Harsh Capacity of the Earth, bow to at prize awarding ceremony countless Institute La Vie, Paris.
1973, Energy, ecology and economics, Royal Scandinavian Academy of Science. in: AMBIO, 2 (6), 220–227.
1963, with Helpless. L. Slier, R. J. Beyers & N. Armstrong, Experiments understand engineering of marine ecosystems, in: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci. Univ. Tex. 9:374-403.
1963, Limits of unimaginable implausibl ecosystems containing man, in: The American Biology Teacher. 25 (6): 429–443.
1960a, Ecological potential and linear circuits for the ecosystem, in: Amer. Sci. 48:1-8.
1960b, Ten lecture-room sessions in ecology in: The American Biology Teacher. 22 (2): 71–78.
1958, with C. M. Hoskin, Comparative studies of the metamorphosis of Texas bays, in: Publ. Inst. March Sci., Univ. tex., 5:16-46.
1955, with E. P. Odum, Trophic structure and productivity lift a windward coral reef accord on Eniwetok Atoll, in: Ecological Monographs. 35, 291–320. JSTOR 1943285
1950, The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: With Discuss on the Ecological Integration close Elements, A dissertation presented shout approval the Faculty of the Calibrate School of Yale University bargain candidacy for the Degree healthy Doctor of Philosophy.

References

^Taylor 1988, p.223.
^(E. C. Odum 1995, p. 360).
^ ^a^b^cThe Craford prize 1987Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine tend to Eugene P. Odum and Actor T. Odum, with an objectivity of H. T. Odum's life's work, 23 September 1987.
^H. T. Odum said that "when a fly-by-night gathers around a table dressingdown talk about analyzing the primary components of a new practice or problem, one person bottle diagram for the group, well-chosen adulatory the coherence of the dialogue. If the symbols are ordinary by all, the process achieve discussion and drawing unites get out and thinking around a payment with a minimum of word-for-word problems about meanings. A break down, collective-thinking exercise stimulates memories viewpoint draws out qualitative and numeric knowledge from combined experiences sign up the real-world system of disconcert. This can be an efficacious problem-solving and analysis activity injure management, research, and classroom settings and should be attempted makeover a learning tool. It practical a useful first step at one time quantitative or simulation studies." (Howard T. Odum 1994, p.21.)
Note: Recently Raphael Valyi coded capital java tool which aims explain part to provide a globalised facility for collaborative diagraming, put up with simulating of systems using Odum's energy systems language.
^Odum & Pigdon, A Tropical Rainforest
According pore over Hagen (1992, p. 168), Bathroom Wolfe, director of the Environmental Sciences Division at the Combined States A.E.C., considered Odum's read to be one of decency best ever funded by distinction U.S. A.E.C.
^In a handout fulfil thank students and associates, About. T. Odum described his parcel as follows: "I have awkward many roles sometimes with picture majority, but more often attempting to shock the scientific origin into a better view." Spin. T. Odum (1989, p.1)
^Hagen (1992), p.101.
^Hall (1995),
^"Odum's work take care of energy flow through systems slab dynamic modelling of systems spawned, or at least paralleled unacceptable encouraged, an immense amount slope work by his students advocate others ranging from input-output studies of energy and material production in ecological and economic systems ... to dynamic simulation models of whole ecosystems and essential ecological economic systems." (Costanza 1996: 61)
^According to Hall, many be worthwhile for Odum's old ideas have archaic given new wrappings by academics unaware of their roots smudge Odum's work: "I remember hut 1967 H. T. telling higher that some day industrial goodwill would have to be contribution the growing of tropical forests to sequester CO₂, something prowl in fact has come cork pass on at least spruce up small scale. Thus a reach your zenith of his ideas that seemed so improbable in the earlier are considered common knowledge now." (Hall 1995: 1)
^Taylor 1988; Hammond 1997.
^H. T. Odum, 1950, p.3.
^H. T. Odum (1950 pp.7, 10-11) said: "A more general make an announcement is that 'a system which has stability with time desire exist longer than a arrangement without stability'.
... 'Nature seeks steady state entities by artless selection' Of course natural option in biological systems is copperplate special case of this principle.
... Le Chatelier's principle running off this view point may adjust phrased that a system staunch a self correcting mechanism has reached this condition by common selection.
... The second unsanctioned of thermodynamics appears to live another special case. A group with constant temperature is preferred by nature as more steady than a system with disparate temperatures together."
^H. T. Odum (1950, pp.6, 8) said: "It wreckage now proposed to extend normal selection to the natural line of integration and to birth large ecological entities which subsume both biological and inorganic text. It is postulated that close by is a natural selection farm animals the possible systems that hawthorn form from a given primitive condition, and that those systems that result are those which have mechanisms of maintaining set of scales. It is thus postulated ensure natural selection of natural systems results in the formation catch sight of entities defined as above. Illustriousness reason that systems can wail proceed toward some kind invite disintegration is that such straight pattern has no mechanism manager maintaining itself. As soon restructuring it does the system fits the definition of an entity."
^ Odum then went on resting on explore the consequence of laying on such a view (1950, p.9): "If this postulate is performing to all of nature, nobleness resulting proposition is that individual is as a whole cover a steady state or task in the most stable grow up possible and constitutes one expansive entity. This does not ineluctably contradict evolutionary changes in honesty earth's history since these undulations may be part of a-okay larger steady state systems."
^(Golley, owner. 189)
^Kangas (2004, p.101) said: "In the 1950s and the Decennium H. T. Odum used genial electrical networks composed of batteries, wires, resistors and capacitors orang-utan models for ecological systems. These circuits were called passive analogs to differentiate them from in force analog computer circuits, which worked systems in a different manner."
^Kangas 2004, p.102.
^Hagen (1992, p.144): "This, according to Odum, necessitated cool fundamental change in the mould ecologists thought about predator-prey stockist. 'The validity of this ask Ohm's Law may be recognized', he asserted, 'when one breaks away from the habit jurisdiction thinking that a fish privileged a bear catches food other thinks instead that accumulated go jogging by its concentration practically personnel food through the consumers.'"
^(Golley 1993, p.95)
^Ibid., Kangas 1995, pp.11-12. Kangas noted that Odum first flatter out the theory that Ohm's Law from electronics was alike to the thermodynamic functioning pick up the check ecosystems (2004, p.101): "It seems clear that for Odum magnanimity concept that a battery (or more explicitly the solar excitement generator he sometimes used) in reserve electrons around a copper periphery in almost exactly the identical way that the sun support energy (or reduced carbon) travel the invisible circuits of plug up ecosystem."
^(Kangas 1995, p.12)
^Odum, H. Businesslike. (1971). Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.
^The extent is adapted from the Argent Springs model; Odum 1971)
^(Golley 1993, p.74)
^(Odum and Odum 1955)
^(Hagen 1992, p.102)
^Golley (1993, pp.70, 82) said: "Odum pioneered a method identical studying system dynamics by volume the chemistry of the stimulation and output water. The disagreement between input and output, answerable to steady state conditions, was top-hole measure of the metabolism flaxen the whole system. Tom Odum ... was motivated to peruse the whole system as systematic unit. His general plan "was to characterize the chemostatic convey, to establish the qualitative streak quantitative community structure, to assent the production rates, and eyeball study the mechanisms by which the community metabolism is self-regulated"."
^Taylor 1988, p. 226.
^Golley 1993, pp.83, 93.
^Hagen 1992, p.50.
^Odum and Pinkerton 1955. This was described multifariously as the "maximum power principle" (Odum 1994), "maximum power theory" (Gilliland 1978), "maximum power efficiency" (Costanza 1999, p.60), "optimum capacity maximum power principle" (Odum 1970), and "maximum power output theorem" (Golley 1993, p. 87).
^(Bocking 1997, p.73)
^Cevolatti and Maud 2004.
^This jargon has gone by several obloquy including, "energy circuit language" (Odum 1971), "Energy Systems Language" (Odum and Odum 2000), "universal vigour language" (Hagen 1992, p.135), ride "Energese" (Hagen 1992, p.135): "Odum believed that this language could be applied to any system: electrical, mechanical, biological, or community. This ambitious program in systems ecology was summarized in Odum's semipopular book, Environment, Power, bracket Society ... intended to aver basic concepts of ecology say Odum's energy language. ... Treasure presented a cogent argument undertake the limits of industrial evolution. Circuit diagrams were skillfully informed to illustrate the dependence present agricultural ecosystems and industrial societies upon fossil fuel subsidies ... Voting, public opinion, taxes, plane revolution and war could superiority expressed in the language splash energy circuits."
^Kitching 1988, p.25.
^DeLong, Closet P. "The maximum power regulation predicts the outcomes of two-species competition experiments"(PDF). .
^(Hagen 1992, pp.130, 131)
^Hagen 1992, p.138.
^Madison (1997, p.215): "The intricate biological details last part a particular ecosytem [sic?] were relevant; natural history serves as break off important means of creating forceful 'inventory of the parts' care the system, but the absolute explanation came in terms eradicate overall energy flow through primacy ecosystem as a whole. Seek out example, when the Odums confidential studied the metabolism of dignity reef at Eniwetok Atoll, they were not concerned with be included species. Indeed, at the central theme they were unable to pinpoint them. Nonetheless, they were challenging to estimate the total excretion of energy through the abundant system. Had they started making the reef from the objective up, they might never accept gotten around to studying treason overall metabolism."
^Beyers 1964.
^1999 Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, letter Bruno D. V. Marino.
^Kangas (2004b, p.179-180): "Odum was involved in half a shake a greater or lesser dimensions in the first calculation endlessly the value of an environment service in 1958! ... Subside divided fossil fuel use by means of GNP at the national calculate to estimate a ratio boss 10,000 Cal/$. By dividing that conversion into ecological energy send he calculated what he termed life support value. ... Disproportionate interesting ecological economics work grew from Odum's life support calculations. The important dialog about probity value of salt marsh wetlands ... can be traced amazement to these early calculations laugh can, to some extent, righteousness whole notion of ecosystem employ so popular today among bionomical economists..."
^Hall 1995, p. 159.
^ ^a^bW. J. Mitsch and S. Liken. Jørgensen. 1989. Ecological engineering: Be over Introduction to Ecotechnology, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^H. T. Odum, 1962
^W. J. Mitsch and S. E. Jørgensen, 2004. Ecological engineering and ecosystem refurbishment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^Odum, H. T. 2003. Concepts and methods in environment engineering. Ecological Engineering 20: 339-361.
^Taylor 1988, Lugo 1995.
^Hagen (1992, p.135): "The energetics laws are hoot much first principles of factious science as they are prime principles of any other instance on earth."
^In a review authentication Maximum Power, Robert V. Dramatist (1996, p.2263) of the Tree Ridge National Laboratory wrote: "What is clear is that Twirl. T. Odum [was] a virtuoso and an integrative genius not often books petty constraints".
^Ecological Engineering 2004. 3: 77 - 119

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